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Proudhon,
Pierre-Joseph (b. Jan. 15, 1809, Besançon,
Fr.--d. Jan. 19, 1865, Paris), French libertarian socialist
and journalist whose doctrines became the basis for later radical and anarchist
theory.
Proudhon was born into poverty as the
son of a feckless cooper and tavern keeper, and at the age of nine he worked as
a cowherd in the Jura Mountains. Proudhon's country childhood and peasant
ancestry influenced his ideas to the end of his life, and his vision of the
ideal society almost to the end remained that of a world in which peasant
farmers and small craftsmen like his father could live in freedom, peace, and
dignified poverty, for luxury repelled him, and he never sought it for himself
or others.
Proudhon at an early age showed the
signs of intellectual brilliance, and he won a scholarship to the college at
Besançon. Despite the humiliation of being a child in sabots (wooden
shoes) among the sons of merchants, he developed a taste for learning and
retained it even when his family's financial disasters forced him to become an
apprentice printer and later a compositor. While he learned his craft, he taught
himself Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and in the printing shop he not only conversed
with various local liberals and Socialists but also met and fell under the
influence of a fellow citizen of Besançon, the utopian Socialist Charles
Fourier.
With other young printers, Proudhon
later attempted to establish his own press, but bad management destroyed the
venture, and it may well have been compounded by his own growing interest in
writing, which led him to develop a French prose difficult to translate but
admired by writers as varied as Flaubert, Sainte-Beuve, and Baudelaire.
Eventually, in 1838, a scholarship awarded by the Besançon Academy
enabled him to study in Paris. Now, with leisure to formulate his ideas, he
wrote his first significant book, Qu'est-ce
que la propriété? (1840; What
Is Property?, 1876). This created a sensation, for Proudhon not only
declared, "I am an anarchist"; he also stated, "Property is
theft!" (see also property
law)
This slogan, which gained much
notoriety, was an example of Proudhon's inclination to attract attention and
mask the true nature of his thought by inventing striking phrases. He did not
attack property in the generally accepted sense but only the kind of property by
which one man exploits the labour of another. Property in another sense--in the
right of the farmer to possess the
land he works and the craftsman his workshop and tools--he regarded as essential
for the preservation of liberty, and his principal criticism of Communism,
whether of the utopian or the Marxist variety, was that it destroyed freedom by
taking away from the individual control over his means of production.
In the somewhat reactionary atmosphere
of the July monarchy in the 1840s, Proudhon narrowly missed prosecution for his
statements in What Is Property?; and
he was brought into court when, in 1842, he published a more inflammatory
sequel, Avertissement aux propriétaires
(Warning to Proprietors, 1876). In
this first of his trials, Proudhon escaped conviction because the jury
conscientiously found that they could not clearly understand his arguments and
therefore could not condemn them.
In 1843 he went to Lyon to work as
managing clerk in a water transport firm. There he encountered a weavers' secret
society, the Mutualists, who had evolved a protoanarchist doctrine that taught
that the factories of the dawning industrial age could be operated by
associations of workers and that these workers, by economic action rather than
by violent revolution, could transform society. Such views were at variance with
the Jacobin revolutionary tradition in France, with its stress on political
centralism. Nevertheless, Proudhon accepted their views and later paid tribute
to his Lyonnais working-class mentors by adopting the name of Mutualism
for his own form of anarchism.
As well as encountering the obscure
working-class theoreticians of Lyon, Proudhon also met the feminist Socialist
Flora Tristan and, on his visits to Paris, made the acquaintance of Karl
Marx, Mikhail Bakunin, and the Russian
Socialist and writer Aleksandr Herzen. In 1846 he took issue with Marx over the
organization of the Socialist movement, objecting to Marx's authoritarian and
centralist ideas. Shortly afterward, when Proudhon published his Système
des contradictions économiques, ou Philosophie de la misère
(1846; System of Economic Contradictions: or, The Philosophy of Poverty,
1888), Marx attacked him bitterly in a book-length polemic La misère de la philosophie (1847; The Poverty of Philosophy, 1910). It
was the beginning of a historic rift between libertarian and authoritarian
Socialists and between anarchists and Marxists which, after Proudhon's death,
was to rend Socialism's First International
apart in the feud between Marx and Proudhon's disciple Bakunin and which has
lasted to this day.
Early in 1848 Proudhon abandoned his
post in Lyon and went to Paris, where in February he started the paper Le
Représentant du peuple. During the revolutionary year of 1848 and the
first months of 1849 he edited a total of four papers; the earliest were more or
less regular anarchist periodicals and all of them were destroyed in turn by
government censorship. Proudhon himself took a minor part in the Revolution
of 1848, which he regarded as devoid of any sound theoretical basis.
Though he was elected to the Constituent Assembly of the Second
Republic in June 1848, he confined himself mainly to criticizing the
authoritarian tendencies that were emerging in the revolution and that led up to
the dictatorship of Napoleon III. Proudhon also attempted unsuccessfully to
establish a People's Bank based on mutual credit and labour checks, which paid
the worker according to the time expended on his product. He was eventually
imprisoned in 1849 for criticizing Louis-Napoleon, who had become president of
the republic prior to declaring himself Emperor Napoleon III, and Proudhon was
not released until 1852.
His conditions of imprisonment were--by
20th-century standards--light. His friends could visit him, and he was allowed
to go out occasionally in Paris. He married and begat his first child while he
was imprisoned. From his cell he also edited the last issues of his last paper
(with the financial assistance of Herzen) and wrote two of his most important
books, the never translated Confessions
d'un révolutionnaire (1849) and Idée
générale de la révolution au XIXe siècle (1851; The
General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century, 1923). The
latter--in its portrait of a federal world society with frontiers abolished,
national states eliminated, and authority decentralized among communes or
locality associations, and with free contracts replacing laws--presents perhaps
more completely than any other of Proudhon's works the vision of his ideal
society.
After Proudhon's release from prison in
1852 he was constantly harassed by the imperial police; he found it impossible
to publish his writings and supported himself by preparing anonymous guides for
investors and other similar hack works. When, in 1858, he persuaded a publisher
to bring out his three-volume masterpiece De
la justice dans la Révolution et dans l'église, in which he
opposed a humanist theory of justice to the church's transcendental assumptions,
his book was seized. Having fled to Belgium, he was sentenced in absentia to
further imprisonment. He remained in exile until 1862, developing his criticisms
of nationalism and his ideas of world federation (embodied in Du Principe fédératif, 1863).
On his return to Paris, Proudhon began
to gain influence among the workers; Paris craftsmen who had adopted his
Mutualist ideas were among the founders of the First International just before
his death in 1865. His last work, completed on his death bed, De la capacité politique des classes
ouvrières (1865), developed the theory that the liberation of
the workers must be their own task, through economic action.
Proudhon was not the first to enunciate
the doctrine that is now called anarchism; before he claimed it, it had already
been sketched out by, among others, the English philosopher William Godwin in
prose and his follower Percy Bysshe Shelley in verse.
There is no evidence, however, that
Proudhon ever studied the works of either Godwin or Shelley, and his
characteristic doctrines of anarchism (society without government), Mutualism
(workers' association for the purpose of credit banking), and federalism (the
denial of centralized political organization) seem to have resulted from an
original reinterpretation of French revolutionary thought modified by personal
experience.
Proudhon was a solitary thinker who
refused to admit that he had created a system and abhorred the idea of founding
a party. There was thus something ironical about the breadth of influence that
his ideas later developed. They were important in the First International and
later became the basis of anarchist theory as developed by Bakunin (who once
remarked that "Proudhon was the master of us all") and the anarchist
writer Peter Kropotkin. His concepts were influential among such varied groups
as the Russian populists, the radical Italian nationalists of the 1860s, the
Spanish federalists of the 1870s, and the syndicalist
movement that developed in France and later became powerful in Italy and Spain.
Until the beginning of the 1920s, Proudhon remained the most important single
influence on French working-class radicalism, while in a more diffuse manner his
ideas of decentralization and his criticisms of government had revived in the
later 20th century, even though at times their origin was not recognized. (G.W.)
|
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