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Owen, Robert
(b. May 14, 1771, Newtown, Montgomeryshire, Wales--d. Nov. 17, 1858,
Newtown), Welsh manufacturer turned reformer, one of the most influential
utopian socialists of the early 19th century. His New Lanark mills in
Lanarkshire, with their social and industrial welfare programs, became a
place of pilgrimage for statesmen and social
reformers. He also sponsored or encouraged many experimental "utopian"
communities, including one at New Harmony, Ind., U.S.
Owen attended local schools until
the age of 10, when he became an apprentice to a clothier. His employer had
a good library, and young Owen spent much of his time reading. He did so
well in business that by the time he was 19 he had become superintendent of
a large cotton mill in Manchester, which he soon had made one of the
foremost establishments of its kind in Great Britain. Owen made use of the
first American sea island cotton (a fine, long-staple fibre) ever imported
into the country and made improvements in the quality of the cotton spun. On
becoming manager and a partner in the Manchester firm, Owen induced his
partners to purchase the New Lanark mills in Lanarkshire.
In the town of New
Lanark lived 2,000 people, 500 of whom were young children from the
poorhouses and charities of Edinburgh and Glasgow. The children, especially,
had been well treated by the former proprietor, but the condition of the
people was unsatisfactory. Crime and vice bred by demoralizing conditions
were common, education and sanitation alike were neglected, and housing
conditions were intolerable. Owen improved the houses and, mainly by his own
personal influence, encouraged the people in habits of order, cleanliness,
and thrift. He opened a store at which goods of sound quality could be
bought at little more than cost price and at which the sale of alcoholic
beverages was placed under strict supervision. His greatest success,
however, was in the education of the young, to which he devoted special
attention. In 1816 he opened the first infant school in Great Britain at the
New Lanark mills and thereafter gave it his close personal supervision.
Though Owen at first was regarded
with suspicion as an outsider, he soon won the confidence of the people. The
mills continued to thrive commercially, but some of Owen's schemes entailed
considerable expense, which displeased his partners. Finally, frustrated by
the restrictions imposed on him by his partners, who wished to conduct the
business along more ordinary lines, he organized a new firm in 1813. Its
members, content with a 5 percent return on their capital and ready to give
freer scope to his philanthropy, bought out the old firm. Stockholders in
the new firm included the legal reformer Jeremy Bentham and the Quaker
William Allen.
In the same year (1813) Owen
published two of the four essays in A
New View of Society; or, Essays on the Principle of the Formation of
the Human Character, in which he expounded the principles on which his
system of educational philanthropy was based. Having at an early age lost
all belief in the prevailing forms of religion, he had thought out for
himself a creed that he took to be an entirely new and original discovery.
The chief points in Owen's
philosophy were that man's character is formed by circumstances over which
he has no control and that he is not a proper subject either of praise or of
blame. These convictions led him to the conclusion that the great secret in
the right formation of man's character is to place him under the proper
influences from his earliest years. The irresponsibility of man and the
effect of early influences are the keynote of Owen's whole system of
education and social amelioration.
For the next few years, Owen's work
in New Lanark was to have a national, even European, significance. New
Lanark became a place of pilgrimage for social reformers, statesmen, and
royal personages. According to the unanimous testimony of all who visited
it, the results achieved by Owen were singularly good. Children brought up
on his system were generally felt to be graceful, genial, and unconstrained;
health, plenty, and relative contentment prevailed. The business was a
commercial success.
In 1815 Owen, apparently
single-handedly, started agitation for factory reform, with only little
effect, and by 1817 his work as a practical reformer had given way to
ideas--still vital--that were to make him the forerunner of socialism and
the cooperative movement. Owen argued that
the competition of human labour with machinery was a permanent cause of
distress and held that the only effective remedy lay in the united action of
men and the subordination of machinery to man. His proposals for the
treatment of pauperism were based on those principles.
Owen recommended that villages of
"unity and cooperation" be established for the unemployed. Each
village would consist of about 1,200 persons living on 1,000 to 1,500 acres
(400 to 600 hectares); all would live in one large structure built in the
form of a square, with public kitchen and messrooms. Each family would have
its own private apartment and the entire care of the children until the age
of three, after which they would be raised by the community. Parents would
have access to them at meals and all other proper times. Such communities,
Owen believed, might be established by individuals, by parishes, by
counties, or by the state; in each case there would be supervision by duly
qualified persons. Work and the enjoyment of its results would be shared in
common.
The size of the projected community
had been suggested by that of the village of New Lanark, and Owen soon
advocated an extension of the scheme to the reorganization of society in
general. Under his plan, largely selfcontained communities of from 500 to
3,000 would first be set up, mainly agricultural and possessing the most
modern machinery. As they increased in number, he wrote, "unions of
them, federatively united, should be formed in circles of tens, hundreds,
and thousands," until they embraced the whole world in a common
interest.
Owen's plans for the cure of
pauperism were received with considerable favour until, at a large meeting
in London, Owen declared his hostility to the received forms of religion.
Many of his supporters believed that this action made him suspect to the
upper classes, though he did not lose all support from them. To carry out
his plan for the creation of self-contained communities, in 1825 he bought
30,000 acres of land in Indiana from a religious community and renamed it New
Harmony. For a time, life in the community was well ordered and
contented under Owen's practical guidance, but differences about the form of
government and the role of religion soon appeared, and numerous attempts at
reconstruction failed to compose them, though it is agreed that an admirable
spirit prevailed amid all the dissensions. Owen withdrew from the community
in 1828, having lost £40,000--80 percent of his fortune. The other
chief Owenite community experiments were in Great Britain--at Queenwood,
Hampshire (1839-45), in which Owen took part for three years; at Orbiston,
near Glasgow, Lanarkshire (1826-27); and at Ralahine, County Cork (1831-33);
he was not directly concerned with either of the later communities.
In his "Report to the County of
Lanark" (a body of landowners) in 1820, Owen declared that reform was
not enough, that a transformation of the social order was required. His
proposals for communities attracted the younger workers, brought up under
the factory system, and between 1820 and 1830 numerous societies were formed
and journals organized to advocate his views. The growth of labour
unionism and the emergence of a working-class point of view caused
Owen's doctrines to be accepted as an expression of the workers'
aspirations, and when he returned to England from New Harmony in 1829 he
found himself regarded as their leader. In the unions, Owenism stimulated
the formation of self-governing workshops. The need for a market for the
products of such shops led to the formation of the National Equitable Labour
Exchange in 1832, applying the principle that labour is the source of all
wealth.
The unprecedented growth of labour
unions made it seem possible that the separate industries and eventually all
industry might be organized by these bodies. Owen and his followers carried
on ardent propaganda all over the country, with the result that the new
National Operative Builders Union turned itself into a guild to carry on the
building industry, and the Grand National
Consolidated Trades Union was formed (1834). Though the enthusiasm of
the unions and the numbers of labourers joining them were remarkable,
determined opposition by employers and severe repression by the government
and law courts ended the movement within a few months. It was two
generations before socialism, first popularly discussed at this time, again
influenced unionism. Throughout these years Owen's community ideas
maintained a hold, and ultimately they provided the basis for the worldwide
consumers' cooperative movement. After 1834 Owen devoted himself to
preaching his educational, moral, rationalist, and marriage-reform ideas. At
the age of 82 he became a spiritualist. He died six years later at Newtown.
Owen's autobiography, The Life of Robert Owen, was published in two volumes in 1857-58
(reprinted 1971). ( D.F.Do./Ed.)
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