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terrorism,
the systematic use of terror or unpredictable violence against governments,
publics, or individuals to attain a political objective. Terrorism has been
used by political organizations with both rightist and leftist objectives,
by nationalistic and ethnic groups, by revolutionaries, and by the armies
and secret police of governments themselves.
Terrorism has been practiced
throughout history and throughout the world. The ancient Greek historian
Xenophon (c. 431-c. 350 BC) wrote of the effectiveness of psychological warfare
against enemy populations. Roman emperors such as Tiberius
(reigned AD 14-37) and Caligula (reigned AD
37-41) used banishment, expropriation of property, and execution as means to
discourage opposition to their rule. The Spanish
Inquisition used arbitrary arrest, torture, and execution to punish
what it viewed as religious heresy. The use of terror was openly advocated
by Robespierre as a means of encouraging
revolutionary virtue during the French Revolution, leading to the period of
his political dominance called the Reign of Terror
(1793-94). After the American Civil War (1861-65) defiant Southerners formed
a terrorist organization called the Ku Klux Klan
to intimidate supporters of Reconstruction. In the latter half of the 19th
century, terrorism was adopted by adherents of anarchism in Western Europe,
Russia, and the United States. They believed that the best way to effect
revolutionary political and social change was to assassinate persons in
positions of power. From 1865 to 1905 a number of kings, presidents, prime
ministers, and other government officials were killed by anarchists' guns or
bombs.
The 20th century witnessed great
changes in the use and practice of terrorism. Terrorism became the hallmark
of a number of political movements stretching from the extreme right to the
extreme left of the political spectrum. Technological advances such as
automatic weapons and compact, electrically detonated explosives gave
terrorists a new mobility and lethality. Terrorism was adopted as virtually
a state policy, though an unacknowledged one, by such totalitarian
regimes as those of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler
and the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin. In
these states arrest, imprisonment, torture, and execution were applied
without legal guidance or restraints to create a climate of fear and to
encourage adherence to the national ideology and the declared economic,
social, and political goals of the state (see
totalitarianism ).
Terrorism has most commonly become
identified, however, with individuals or groups attempting to destabilize or
overthrow existing political institutions. Terrorism has been used by one or
both sides in anticolonial conflicts (Ireland and the United Kingdom,
Algeria and France, Vietnam and France/United States), in disputes between
different national groups over possession of a contested homeland
(Palestinians and Israel), in conflicts between different religious
denominations (Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland), and in
internal conflicts between revolutionary forces and established governments
(Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Iran, Nicaragua, El Salvador,
Argentina). (see also revolutionary
group)
Terrorism's public impact has been
greatly magnified by the use of modern communications media. Any act of
violence is certain to attract television
coverage, which brings the event directly into millions of homes and exposes
viewers to the terrorists' demands, grievances, or political goals. Modern
terrorism differs from that of the past because its victims are frequently
innocent civilians who are picked at random or who merely happen into
terrorist situations. Many groups of terrorists in Europe hark back to the
anarchists of the 19th century in their isolation from the political
mainstream and the unrealistic nature of their goals. Lacking a base of
popular support, extremists substitute violent acts for legitimate political
activities. Such acts include kidnappings, assassinations, skyjackings,
bombings, and hijackings. (see also mass
media)
The Baader-Meinhof gang of West
Germany, the Japanese Red Army, Italy's Red Brigades, the Puerto Rican FALN,
al-Fatah and other Palestinian organizations, the Shining Path of Peru, and
France's Direct Action were among the most prominent terrorist groups of the
later 20th century. |
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