Confucius

공자 (孔子)

• The historical context.
• The life of Confucius.
• The Analects as the embodiment of Confucian ideas.

공자 (孔子), (병)Kongzi (웨)K'ungtzu (영)Confucius. BC 551 노(魯)나라~BC 479 노나라. 중국 춘추시대의 교육자·철학자·정치사상가, 유교의 개조(開祖). 공부자(孔夫子)라고도 한다. 본명은 공구(孔丘). 자는 중니(仲尼). 그의 철학은 동아시아 전 문명권에 깊은 영향을 끼쳤다.

The story of Confucianism does not begin with Confucius (Latinized form of K'ung-fu-tzu, Master K'ung; 551-479 BC). Nor was Confucius the founder of Confucianism in the sense that Buddha was the founder of Buddhism and Christ the founder of Christianity. Rather Confucius considered himself a transmitter who consciously tried to reanimate the old in order to attain the new. He proposed retrieving the meaning of the past by breathing vitality into seemingly outmoded rituals. Confucius' love of antiquity was motivated by his strong desire to understand why certain rituals, such as the ancestral cult, reverence for Heaven, and mourning ceremonies, had survived for centuries. His journey into the past was a search for roots, which he perceived as grounded in humanity's deepest needs for belonging and communicating. He had faith in the cumulative power of culture. The fact that traditional ways had lost vitality did not, for him, diminish their potential for regeneration in the future. In fact, Confucius' sense of history was so strong that he saw himself as a conservationist responsible for the continuity of the cultural values and the social norms that had worked so well for the civilization of the Chou dynasty.

유교의 역사는 공자에서 시작된 것은 아니다. 부처는 불교의 창시자이고 예수는 그리스도교의 창시자이지만 공자는 엄밀히 말해 유교의 창시자가 아니다. 공자는 자기 자신을 '옛 것을 살려 새로운 것을 알게 하는'(溫故而知新) 전수자로 여겼다. 공자는 제사·천제(天祭)·장례 등의 의식들이 수세기 동안 존속해온 이유를 알아내고자 하다가 옛 것에 대한 애착을 느끼게 되었다. 그의 과거로의 여행은 근원에 대한 탐구로 공자는 그 근원은 소속감과 일체감에 대한 인간의 절실한 필요에 바탕을 두고 있다고 느꼈다. 그는 문화의 축적된 힘을 믿었고, 전통적 방식이 활력을 잃었다고 해서 장래에 다시 되살아날 수 있는 잠재력마저 없어졌다고는 보지 않았다. 실제로 그의 역사관은 너무나 투철해서 자기 자신을 주(周)나라 때 꽃피웠던 문화적 가치와 사회적 규범이 존속되도록 전수시켜야 할 의무가 있는 사람이라고 생각했다.

The historical context.

The scholarly tradition envisioned by Confucius can be traced to the sage-kings of antiquity. Although the earliest dynasty confirmed by archaeology is the Shang dynasty (18th-12th century BC), the historical period that Confucius claimed as relevant was much earlier. Confucius may have initiated a cultural process known in the West as Confucianism, but he and those who followed him considered themselves part of a tradition, later identified by Chinese historians as the ju-chia, "scholarly tradition," that had its origins two millennia previously, when the legendary Yao and Shun created a civilized world through moral persuasion.

역사적 배경

공자가 주창한 학자적 전통은 고대의 성군(聖君)들에게까지 거슬러 올라간다. 고고학에 의해 공식적으로 확인된 최초의 왕조는 은(殷：BC 18~12세기)이지만 공자는 그보다 훨씬 이전의 시대를 유교전통의 시원(始原)으로 잡고 있다. 공자가 유교의 문화적 과정을 주도한 것은 사실이지만, 공자와 그 문인(門人)들은 자기 자신들을 전통의 한 부분으로 여겼다. 나중에 중국 역사가들은 이 전통을 유가(儒家)라고 불렀다. 그리고 이 전통은 전설상의 두 성군인 요(堯)와 순(舜)이 도덕정치를 펴던 2,000년 전으로 그 기원을 두고 있다.

Confucius' hero was Chou Kung, or the Duke of Chou (d. 1094 BC), who was said to have helped consolidate and refine the "feudal" ritual system. This system was based on blood ties, marriage alliances, and old covenants as well as on newly negotiated contracts and was an elaborate system of mutual dependence. The appeal to cultural values and social norms for the maintenance of interstate as well as domestic order was predicated on a shared political vision, namely, that authority lies in universal kingship, heavily invested with ethical and religious power by the mandate of Heaven, and that social solidarity is achieved not by legal constraint but by ritual observance. Its implementation enabled the Chou dynasty to survive in relative peace and prosperity for more than five centuries. (see also  social control, feudalism)

공자가 숭배했던 인물은 주공(周公：?~BC 1094)으로 주공은 '봉건적' 의례제도를 확충·완성시킨 인물로 여겨진다. 이 의례제도는 혈연과 결혼으로 맺어진 인척관계, 새로 맺어진 계약 및 오래된 협약에 바탕을 둔 것으로 상호의존을 강조하는 정교한 제도였다. 국가가 문화적 가치와 사회적 규범을 통해 국내 질서뿐 아니라 제후국들과의 연합관계를 유지하려면 많은 사람들이 호응하는 정치이상에 통치의 바탕을 두어야 한다. 그 이상이란 천명에 의해 윤리적·종교적 권한을 갖춘 보편적 왕권을 확립하는 것과 법적 구속이 아닌 예의범절에 의해서 사회적 유대를 이루어내는 것을 의미한다. 주나라는 이같은 정치이상을 실현했기 때문에 500년 이상 평화와 번영 속에서 존속할 수 있었다.

Inspired by the statesmanship of Chou Kung, Confucius harboured a lifelong dream to be in a position to emulate the duke by putting into practice the political ideas that he had learned from the ancient sages and worthies. Although Confucius never realized his political dream, his conception of politics as moral persuasion became more and more influential. (see also  morality)

주공의 정치철학에 영향을 받은 공자는 고대의 성현들로부터 배운 정치이상을 실현시킴으로써 주공에 뒤지지 않는 사람이 되겠다는 평생의 꿈을 가지고 있었다. 공자는 자신의 정치이상을 실현시키지는 못했지만, 정치는 곧 도덕이라는 그의 철학은 후세에 큰 영향을 미치게 되었다.

The idea of Heaven, unique in Chou cosmology, was compatible with the concept of the Lord-on-High in the Shang dynasty. The Lord-on-High may have referred to the progenitor of the Shang royal lineage so that the Shang kings could claim their position as divine descendants, as the emperors of Japan later did, but Heaven to the Chou kings was a much more generalized anthropomorphic God. They believed that the mandate of Heaven (the functional equivalent of the will of the Lord-on-High) was not constant and that there was no guarantee that the descendants of the Chou royal house would be entrusted with kingship, for "Heaven sees as the people see and Heaven hears as the people hear"; thus the virtues of the kings were essential for the maintenance of their power and authority. This emphasis on benevolent rulership, expressed in numerous bronze inscriptions, was both a reaction to the collapse of the Shang dynasty and an affirmation of a deep-rooted world view. (see also  Chou dynasty)

주대의 우주론에서 독특한 개념이었던 '천'(天)은 은대의 '상제'(上帝)와 유사한 개념이다. 은대의 왕들이 자신들을 상제의 후예라고 주장했던 것은 그들의 왕권이 신으로부터 부여받은 신성한 것임을 주장하기 위해서였다. 그러나 주대의 왕들에게 있어서 '천'은 훨씬 의인화된 신(神)을 의미했다. 주의 왕들은 '천명'(天命)은 늘 똑같은 것이 아니기 때문에 주왕가의 후예들이 언제나 왕이 되리라는 보장이 없다고 믿었다. 그 이유는 '민심이 천심'(民心則天心)이기 때문이었다. 따라서 왕권을 유지하려면 필수적으로 덕을 갖추어야 했다. 주대에 인자한 도덕정치를 강조했던 사실은 수많은 청동기에 새겨진 명문(銘文)에도 잘 나타나 있다. 이것은 은나라의 붕괴에 대한 반작용이기도 했고 도덕정치라는 뿌리깊은 세계관을 확인시켜주는 것이기도 하다.

Partly because of the vitality of the feudal ritual system and partly because of the strength of the royal household itself, the Chou kings were able to control their kingdom for several centuries. In 771 BC, however, they were forced to move their capital eastward to present-day Lo-yang to avoid barbarian attacks from Central Asia. Real power thereafter passed into the hands of feudal lords. Since the surviving line of the Chou kings continued to be recognized in name, they still managed to exercise some measure of symbolic control. By Confucius' time, however, the feudal ritual system had been so fundamentally undermined that the political crises also precipitated a profound sense of moral decline: the centre of symbolic control could no longer hold the kingdom from total disintegration.

활기넘치는 봉건적 의례제도와 주왕가의 도덕적 통치 때문에 주왕들은 여러 세기에 걸쳐 그들의 왕국을 장악할 수 있었다. 그러나 BC 77년 중앙아시아로부터 공격해오는 이민족을 피하기 위해 도읍을 옮겨 현재의 뤄양[洛陽]으로 동진하게 되었다. 그뒤로 실권은 봉건영주들의 손으로 넘어갔다. 주왕가의 후손들은 명목상으로 왕의 지위를 유지했고 부분적으로 상징적인 통치권을 행사했다. 그러나 공자의 시대에 이르러 봉건적인 의례제도는 근본적으로 붕괴되었고 정치적 위기로 인해 도덕적 타락에 대한 우려가 매우 높아졌다. 상징적 통치의 중심이었던 주의 왕들은 더이상 왕국이 완전 붕괴되는 것을 막을 수 없었다.

Confucius' response was to address himself to the issue of learning to be human. In so doing he attempted to redefine and revitalize the institutions that for centuries had been vital to political stability and social order: the family, the school, the local community, the state, and the kingdom. Confucius did not accept the status quo, which held that wealth and power spoke the loudest. He felt that virtue, both as a personal quality and as a requirement for leadership, was essential for individual dignity, communal solidarity, and political order. (see also  humanism)

이에 대한 공자의 대응책은 먼저 인간이 되기 위한 학문에 힘쓴다는 것이었다. 그렇게 함으로써 수세기 동안 정치안정과 사회질서에 기여해온 사회제도, 즉 가정·학교·향리·제후국·종주국 등을 활성화시키려고 했다. 공자는 금권과 권력이 최고라는 현상태를 용납하지 않았다. 그는 개인의 존엄성, 사회 연대, 정치질서를 위해서는 개인의 인품과 지도자적 자질의 밑바탕이 되는 도덕심이 강조되어야 한다고 느꼈다.

The life of Confucius.

Confucius' life, in contrast to his tremendous importance, seems starkly undramatic, or, as a Chinese expression has it, it seems "plain and real." The plainness and reality of Confucius' life, however, underlines that his humanity was not revealed truth but an expression of self-cultivation, of the ability of human effort to shape its own destiny. The faith in the possibility of ordinary human beings to become awe-inspiring sages and worthies is deeply rooted in the Confucian heritage, and the insistence that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour is typically Confucian. (see also  self)

공자의 생애

공자의 생애는 그가 끼친 엄청난 영향력에 비해 너무나 보잘것없는 것이었다. 그래서 한 중국인은 그의 생애가 '평범하고 현실적인 것'이었다고 표현했다. 그러나 공자 생애의 평범성과 현실성은 그의 인간성이 영감이나 계시에 의해 주어진 것이 아니라 자기 수양과 자기 운명을 장악하려는 노력의 결과임을 드러내주는 것이다. 평범한 사람도 노력하면 위대한 성현이 될 수 있다는 믿음은 유교적 전통에 뿌리 깊은 것이다. 또 인간은 교화(敎化)와 발전이 가능하고 개인적·사회적 노력을 통해 완벽하게 될 수 있다는 주장은 유교의 핵심사상이다.

Although the facts about Confucius' life are scanty, they do establish a precise time frame and historical context. Confucius was born in the 22nd year of the reign of Duke Hsiang of Lu (551 BC). The traditional claim that he was born on the 27th day of the eighth lunar month has been questioned by historians, but September 28 is still widely observed in East Asia as Confucius' birthday. It is an official holiday, "Teachers' Day," in Taiwan.

공자의 생애에 대해 알려진 사실은 많지 않지만 정확한 연대와 역사적 배경이 뒷받침되어 있다. 공자는 BC 551년(襄公 22) 주의 제후국인 노나라에서 태어났다. 노나라는 주의 건국공신인 주공 단(旦)의 아들이 개국한 유서깊은 나라였다. 공자가 음력 8월 27일에 태어났다는 통설은 많은 역사가들이 의문을 제기하고 있으나, 양력 9월 28일은 여전히 동아시아에서 공자탄신일로 널리 봉축되고 있다. 타이완에서는 이날을 '스승의 날'로 지정하여 국정공휴일로 지키고 있다.

Confucius was born in Ch'ü-fu in the small feudal state of Lu in what is now Shantung Province, which was noted for its preservation of the traditions of ritual and music of the Chou civilization. His family name was K'ung and his personal name Ch'iu, but he is referred to as either K'ung-tzu or K'ung-fu-tzu (Master K'ung) throughout Chinese history. The adjectival "Confucian," derived from the Latinized Confucius, is not a meaningful term in Chinese, nor is the term Confucianism, which was coined in Europe as recently as the 18th century.

Confucius' ancestors were probably members of the aristocracy who had become virtual poverty-stricken commoners by the time of his birth. His father died when Confucius was only three years old. Instructed first by his mother, Confucius then distinguished himself as an indefatigable learner in his teens. He recalled toward the end of his life that at age 15 his heart was set upon learning. A historical account notes that, even though he was already known as an informed young scholar, he felt it appropriate to inquire about everything while visiting the Grand Temple. (see also  education, philosophy of)

Confucius had served in minor government posts managing stables and keeping books for granaries before he married a woman of similar background when he was 19. It is not known who Confucius' teachers were, but he made a conscientious effort to find the right masters to teach him, among other things, ritual and music. Confucius' mastery of the six arts--ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic--and his familiarity with the classical traditions, notably poetry and history, enabled him to start a brilliant teaching career in his 30s.

Confucius is known as the first teacher in China who wanted to make education available to all men and who was instrumental in establishing the art of teaching as a vocation, indeed as a way of life. Before Confucius, aristocratic families had hired tutors to educate their sons in specific arts, and government officials had instructed their subordinates in the necessary techniques, but he was the first person to devote his whole life to learning and teaching for the purpose of transforming and improving society. He believed that all human beings could benefit from self-cultivation. He inaugurated a humanities program for potential leaders, opened the doors of education to all, and defined learning not merely as the acquisition of knowledge but also as character building.

For Confucius the primary function of education was to provide the proper way of training noblemen (chün-tzu), a process that involved constant self-improvement and continuous social interaction. Although he emphatically noted that learning was "for the sake of the self" (the end of which was self-knowledge and self-realization), he found public service a natural consequence of true education. Confucius confronted learned hermits who challenged the validity of his desire to serve the world; he resisted the temptation to "herd with birds and animals," to live apart from the human community, and opted to try to transform the world from within. For decades Confucius was actively involved in politics, wishing to put his humanist ideas into practice through governmental channels. (see also  political philosophy)

In his late 40s and early 50s Confucius served first as a magistrate, then as an assistant minister of public works, and eventually as minister of justice in the state of Lu. It is likely that he accompanied King Lu as his chief minister on one of the diplomatic missions. Confucius' political career was, however, short-lived. His loyalty to the King alienated him from the power holders of the time, the large Chi families, and his moral rectitude did not sit well with the King's inner circle, who enraptured the King with sensuous delight. At 56, when he realized that his superiors were uninterested in his policies, Confucius left the country in an attempt to find another feudal state to which he could render his service. Despite his political frustration he was accompanied by an expanding circle of students during this self-imposed exile of almost 12 years. His reputation as a man of vision and mission spread. A guardian of a border post once characterized him as the "wooden tongue for a bell" of the age, sounding Heaven's prophetic note to awaken the people (Analects, 3:24). Indeed, Confucius was perceived as the heroic conscience who knew realistically that he might not succeed but, fired by a righteous passion, continuously did the best he could. At the age of 67 he returned home to teach and to preserve his cherished classical traditions by writing and editing. He died in 479 BC at the age of 73. According to the Records of the Historian 72 of his students mastered the "six arts," and those who claimed to be his followers numbered 3,000.

공자는 40대말과 50대초에 이르러 중도(中都)의 장관으로 발탁되었고, 이어 노나라의 재판관이며 최고위직인 대사구(大司寇)가 되었다. 노나라의 군주 정공(定公)을 수행하여 참가한 노나라와 제나라 사이에 벌어진 평화회의에서 외교적 수완을 발휘하기도 했다. 그러나 공자의 정치적 생명은 그리 길지 못했다. 그가 왕에게 충성을 바치자, 당시의 노나라 세도가인 계손자(季孫子) 가(家)에서 견제해왔고, 또 그의 도덕적 엄정성 때문에 왕에게 환락의 즐거움만을 제공하던 왕의 측근들과도 잘 어울리지 못했다. 56세에 공자는 주위의 사람들이 자신의 정책을 지지하지 않는다는 것을 깨닫고, 자신의 이상을 펼 수 있는 다른 나라를 찾아보기 위해 노나라를 떠났다. 공자의 정치적 좌절에도 불구하고 많은 제자들이 거의 12년에 이르는 천하철환(天下轍環)의 망명기간에 공자를 수행했다. 고결한 이상과 소명의식을 가진 사람이라는 공자의 명성은 널리 퍼져 나갔다. 국경을 관리하는 관원 하나는 "하늘은 선생님을 목탁(木鐸)으로 삼을 것이오"라고 공자에게 말했다(〈논어〉 八佾篇 24장). 실제로 공자는 자기 자신이 성공할 수 없다는 것을 잘 알고 있으면서도 정의의 신념에 불타 꾸준히 자신이 할 수 있는 것은 모두 실행하려고 하는 행동적인 양심으로 널리 알려졌다. 67세에 고향으로 돌아와 제자들을 가르치며 저술과 편집에 몰두하면서 고전의 전통을 보존하는 일에 열중했다. BC 479년 73세의 나이로 생을 마쳤다. 〈사기〉에 따르면 그의 제자 중 72명이 '6예'를 통달했고 제자로 자처하는 사람의 수가 3,000명을 넘었다고 한다.

The Analects as the embodiment of Confucian ideas.

The Lun-yü (Analects), the most revered sacred scripture in the Confucian tradition, was probably compiled by the second generation of Confucius' disciples. Based primarily on the Master's sayings, preserved in both oral and written transmissions, it captures the Confucian spirit in form and content in the same way that the Platonic dialogues embody Socratic pedagogy.

유교이상의 구현체인 〈논어〉

유교전통에서 가장 성스러운 문헌으로 존경받는 〈논어〉는 공자의 제자들 가운데 제2세대가 편집했을 것으로 여겨진다. 구전(口傳)과 문서로 보존된 공자의 말씀을 바탕으로 하여 편찬된 이 책은 형식과 내용에 있어서 공자의 정신을 그대로 나타낸 것이다.

The Analects has often been viewed by the critical modern reader as a collection of unrelated conversations randomly put together. This impression may have resulted from the mistaken conception of Confucius as a mere commonsense moralizer who gave practical advice to students in everyday situations. If a person approaches the Analects as a communal memory, a literary device on the part of those who considered themselves beneficiaries of the Confucian Way to continue the Master's memory and to transmit his form of life as a living tradition, he comes close to what it has been revered for in China for centuries. Dialogues are used to show Confucius in thought and action, not as an isolated individual but as the centre of relationships. Actually the sayings of the Analects reveal Confucius' personality--his ambitions, his fears, his joys, his commitments, and above all his self-knowledge.

현대의 독자들은 〈논어〉가 서로 관련이 없는 대화들을 되는 대로 모아 놓은 책이라고 비판적으로 말하기도 한다. 이같은 인상을 받게 되는 것은 공자가 일상생활에서 제자들에게 실제적인 충고를 해주는 상식적인 도덕가에 지나지 않는다고 그릇되게 생각하기 때문이다. 〈논어〉는 여러 사람의 공동 기억을 기록한 것으로, 자신을 유생(儒生)이라고 생각하는 사람들이 공자에 대한 기억을 계승시키고 공자의 생활양식을 현재에도 살아 있는 전통으로 전수시켜주는 문서로서 수세기 동안 숭배해왔다. 〈논어〉 속의 대화는 생각하고 움직이는 공자의 모습을 보여주는데, 이때 공자는 혼자 동떨어져 있는 개인이 아니라 인간관계의 중심으로 그 모습을 드러낸다. 실제로 〈논어〉 속의 말씀은 공자의 인품, 즉 야망·공포·환희·신념·자기발견을 그대로 보여준다.

The purpose, then, in compiling these distilled statements centring on Confucius seems not to have been to present an argument or to record an event but to offer an invitation to readers to take part in an ongoing conversation. Through the Analects Confucians for centuries learned to reenact the awe-inspiring ritual of participating in a conversation with Confucius.

One of Confucius' most significant personal descriptions is the short autobiographical account of his spiritual development found in the Analects:

At 15 I set my heart on learning; at 30 I firmly took my stand; at 40 I had no delusions; at 50 I knew the Mandate of Heaven; at 60 my ear was attuned; at 70 I followed my heart's desire without overstepping the boundaries of right. (2:4)

"나는 15세가 되어서 학문에 뜻을 두었고, 30세가 되어서 학문의 기초를 확립했고, 40세가 되어서는 판단에 혼돈을 일으키지 않았고, 50세가 되어서는 천명을 알았고, 60세가 되어서 귀로 들으면 그 뜻을 알았고, 70세가 되어서는 마음이 하고자 하는 것대로 하여도 법도에 벗어나지 않았다."(爲政篇 4장)

Confucius' life as a student and teacher exemplified his idea that education was a ceaseless process of self-realization. When one of his students reportedly had difficulty describing him, Confucius came to his aid:

제자로서 그리고 스승으로서 공자의 일생은 교육이 끊임없는 자기 실현의 과정이라는 그의 이상을 구체적으로 보여주었다. 전하는 말에 의하면, 그의 제자인 자로(子路)가 공자의 인물됨을 잘 표현할 수 없었을 때 공자는 자로를 이렇게 도와주었다고 한다.

Why did you not simply say something to this effect: he is the sort of man who forgets to eat when he engages himself in vigorous pursuit of learning, who is so full of joy that he forgets his worries, and who does not notice that old age is coming on? (7:18)

"너는 왜 '그분(공자)의 사람됨이 학문에 발분하면 식사를 잊고 그러한 것을 즐거워하여 근심을 잊어, 늙음이 닥쳐오리라는 것조차 모르고 계십니다'라고 말하지 않았느냐?"(述而篇 18장)

Confucius was deeply concerned that the culture (wen) he cherished was not being transmitted and that the learning (hsüeh) he propounded was not being taught. His strong sense of mission, however, never interfered with his ability to remember what had been imparted to him, to learn without flagging, and to teach without growing weary. What he demanded of himself was strenuous:

공자는 그가 숭상하는 문(文)이 잘 전수되지 않고 그가 주창하는 학(學)이 잘 가르쳐지지 않는 데 대해 깊은 우려를 나타냈다. 그러나 이같은 깊은 우려에도 불구하고 배운 것을 기억해내는 능력, 끊임없는 학문연구, 지칠 줄 모르는 가르침 등은 조금도 변함이 없었다. 그는 그 자신에게도 매우 엄격했다.

It is these things that cause me concern: failure to cultivate virtue, failure to go deeply into what I have learned, inability to move up to what I have heard to be right, and inability to reform myself when I have defects. (7:3)

"덕(德)이 닦아지지 아니하는 것과 학문이 익혀지지 아니하는 것과 정의임을 알고도 그곳으로 옮겨가지 못하는 것과 선하지 않은 것을 고치지 못하는 것이 내 근심이다."(술이편 3장)

What he demanded of his students was the willingness to learn: "I do not enlighten anyone who is not eager to learn, nor encourage anyone who is not anxious to put his ideas into words (7:8).

그가 제자들에게 바랐던 것은 자발적인 향학열이었다. "알려고 답답해 하지 않으면 지도하지 않고 표현하지 못해 괴로워하지 않으면 일깨우지 않는다."(술이편 8장)

The community that Confucius created was a scholarly fellowship of like-minded men of different ages and different backgrounds from different states. They were attracted to Confucius because they shared his vision and to varying degrees took part in his mission to bring moral order to an increasingly fragmented polity. This mission was difficult and even dangerous. Confucius himself suffered from joblessness, homelessness, starvation, and occasionally life-threatening violence. Yet his faith in the survivability of the culture that he cherished and the workability of the approach to teaching that he propounded was so steadfast that he convinced his followers as well as himself that Heaven was on their side. When Confucius' life was threatened in K'uang, he said:

공자의 문하생들은 다른 나이, 다른 배경, 다른 나라 출신으로 구성되어 있었으나, 모두 같은 마음을 가진 학자지망생들이었다. 그들은 공자의 이상에 동참했고 점점 더 분열되는 정체(政體)에 도덕심을 회복시키겠다는 공자의 사명의식을, 정도의 차이는 있을망정 공유했기 때문에 공자의 문하로 몰려들었다. 공자의 사명의식을 행동으로 옮기는 것은 어렵고 때로는 위험하기조차 했다. 공자 자신도 실직·향수·기아, 때로는 생명을 위협하는 폭력에 시달렸다. 그러나 그가 숭상하는 문화의 생명성과 그가 주창하는 학문적 태도의 실현가능성에 대한 신념은 확고했다. 그는 그 자신과 문하생들에게 하늘이 도와주리라고 확신시켰다. 광(匡)에서 자신의 생명이 위험해졌을 때 공자는 이렇게 말했다.

Since the death of King Wen [founder of the Chou dynasty] does not the mission of culture (wen) rest here in me? If Heaven intends this culture to be destroyed, those who come after me will not be able to have any part of it. If Heaven does not intend this culture to be destroyed, then what can the men of K'uang do to me? (9:5)

"문왕(文王：주나라의 창시자)이 돌아가버리고 나서는 그가 이룩한 문화가 나한테 전하여져 있지 않으냐? 하늘이 이 문화를 없애버리려 했다면, (나같은) 뒤에 죽을 사람들이 이 문화에 관계를 갖지 못했을 것이다. 하늘이 이 문화를 없애버리려고 하지 않는다면, 광의 사람들이 나를 어쩌겠느냐?"(子罕篇 5장)

This expression of self-confidence informed by a powerful sense of mission may give the impression that there was presumptuousness in Confucius' self-image. Confucius, however, made it explicit that he was far from attaining sagehood and that all he really excelled in was "love of learning" (5:27). To him, learning not only broadened his knowledge and deepened his self-awareness but also defined who he was. He frankly admitted that he was not born endowed with knowledge, nor did he belong to the class of men who could transform society without knowledge. Rather, he reported that he used his ears widely and followed what was good in what he had heard and used his eyes widely and retained in his mind what he had seen. His learning constituted "a lower level of knowledge" (7:27), a level that was presumably accessible to the majority of human beings. In this sense Confucius was neither a prophet with privileged access to the divine nor a philosopher who had already seen the truth but a teacher of humanity who was also an advanced fellow traveler on the way to self-realization.

강렬한 사명의식에 불탄 나머지 이같은 자신감을 드러낸 것을 보고 공자의 인물됨이 교만한 것이 아닌가 하는 인상을 받을 수도 있다. 그러나 공자는 자신은 절대로 성현이 아니며, 자신이 남보다 나은 것이 있다면 배우기를 좋아하는 것뿐(公冶長篇 27장)이라고 분명하게 말했다. 그에게 있어서 학문은 지식을 넓히고 자의식을 깊게 해줄 뿐만 아니라, 자신이 어떤 사람인가도 알게 해주는 것이었다. 그는 자신이 타고난 지식인도 아니고 지식의 도움없이 사회를 변모시킬 수 있는 그런 부류의 사람도 아니라고 솔직히 시인했다. 자신이 귀를 활짝 열어놓고 남의 말을 귀담아 듣고 그중에서 선한 것을 애써 행하며, 눈으로 두루 살펴 자신이 본 것을 마음 속에 남겨놓는 그런 사람이라고 말했다. 공자의 학문은 '비교적 낮은 수준의 지식'(술이편 27장)으로 대부분의 사람들도 도달할 수 있는 수준이었다. 이런 의미로 볼 때 공자는 신에게 호소할 수 있는 특권을 가진 선지자도, 진리를 환히 꿰뚫는 철학자도 아니었다. 단지 인(仁)을 가르치는 스승으로서, 자기 실현이라는 길에 나선 여행자들 가운데 다소 앞선 지점에 있는 여행자일 뿐이었다.

As a teacher of humanity Confucius stated his ambition in terms of concern for human beings: "To bring comfort to the old, to have trust in friends, and to cherish the young" (5:25). Confucius' vision of the way to develop a moral community began with a holistic reflection on the human condition. Instead of dwelling on abstract speculations such as man's condition in the state of nature, Confucius sought to understand the actual situation of a given time and to use that as his point of departure. His aim was to restore trust in government and to transform society into a moral community by cultivating a sense of humanity in politics and society. To achieve that aim, the creation of a scholarly community, the fellowship of chün-tzu (noblemen), was essential. In the words of Confucius' disciple Tseng-tzu, the true nobleman

must be broad-minded and resolute, for his burden is heavy and his road is long. He takes humanity as his burden. Is that not heavy? Only with death does his road come to an end. Is that not long? (8:7)

The fellowship of chün-tzu as moral vanguards of society, however, did not seek to establish a radically different order. Its mission was to redefine and revitalize those institutions that for centuries were believed to have maintained social solidarity and enabled people to live in harmony and prosperity. An obvious example of such an institution was the family.

군자를 사회의 도덕적 선봉으로 내세웠다고 해서 아주 다른 사회계급을 만들겠다는 의도는 아니었다. 군자의 소임은 수세기 동안 사회적 유대를 유지하는 가운데 백성들이 평화와 번영 속에 살 수 있게 한 사회제도들을 재검토하여 활성화시키는 것이었다. 이같은 사회제도 가운데 대표적인 것이 가정이었다.

It is related in the Analects that Confucius, when asked why he did not take part in government, responded by citing a passage from an ancient classic, the Shu Ching ("Classic of History"), "Simply by being a good son and friendly to his brothers a man can exert an influence upon government!" to show that what a person does in the confines of his home is politically significant (2:21). This maxim is based on the Confucian conviction that cultivation of the self is the root of social order and that social order is the basis for political stability and universal peace. (see also  socialization)

The assertion that family ethics is politically efficacious must be seen in the context of the Confucian conception of politics as "rectification" (cheng). Rulers should begin by rectifying their own conduct; that is, they are to be examples who govern by moral leadership and exemplary teaching rather than by force. Government's responsibility is not only to provide food and security but also to educate the people. Law and punishment are the minimum requirements for order; the higher goal of social harmony, however, can only be attained by virtue expressed through ritual performance. To perform rituals, then, is to take part in a communal act to promote mutual understanding.

One of the fundamental Confucian values that ensures the integrity of ritual performance is hsiao (filial piety). Indeed, Confucius saw filial piety as the first step toward moral excellence, which he believed lay in the attainment of the cardinal virtue, jen (humanity). To learn to embody the family in the mind and heart is to become able to move beyond self-centredness or, to borrow from modern psychology, to transform the enclosed private ego into an open self. Filial piety, however, does not demand unconditional submissiveness to parental authority but recognition of and reverence for the source of life. The purpose of filial piety, as the ancient Greeks expressed it, is to enable both parent and child to flourish. Confucians see it as an essential way of learning to be human.

Confucians, moreover, are fond of applying the family metaphor to the community, the country, and the universe. They prefer to address the emperor as the son of Heaven, the king as ruler-father, and the magistrate as the "father-mother official" because to them the family-centred nomenclature implies a political vision. When Confucius said that taking care of family affairs is itself active participation in politics, he had already made it clear that family ethics is not merely a private concern; the public good is realized by and through it.

Confucius defined the process of becoming human as being able to "conquer yourself and return to ritual" (12:1). The dual focus on the transformation of the self (Confucius is said to have freed himself from four things: "opinionatedness, dogmatism, obstinacy, and egoism" [9:4]) and on social participation enabled Confucius to be loyal (chung) to himself and considerate (shu) of others (4:15). It is easy to understand why the Confucian "golden rule" is "Do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you!" (15:23). Confucius' legacy, laden with profound ethical implications, is captured by his "plain and real" appreciation that learning to be human is a communal enterprise: (see also  ethics)

A man of humanity, wishing to establish himself, also establishes others, and wishing to enlarge himself, also enlarges others. The ability to take as analogy of what is near at hand can be called the method of humanity. (6:30)

"인자한 사람은 자기가 나서고 싶으면 남을 내세워 주고 자기가 발전하고 싶으면 남을 발전시켜준다. 가까운 자기를 가지고 남의 입장에 비겨볼 수 있다면 그것이 인(仁)의 올바른 방향이라 하겠다."(옹야편 28장, 이상 〈논어〉 인용부분은 차주환역)

Tu Wei-ing| 李鍾麟 옮김