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individualism,
political and social philosophy that places high value on the freedom of the
individual and generally stresses the self-directed, self-contained,
and comparatively unrestrained individual or ego. The French political
commentator Alexis de Tocqueville, who
coined the word, described it in terms of a kind of moderate selfishness,
disposing human beings to be concerned only with their own small circle of
family and friends.
As a philosophy, individualism
involves a value system, a theory of human nature, a general attitude or
temper, and belief in certain political, economic, social, and religious
arrangements. The value system may be described in terms of three
propositions: all values are man-centred--that is, they are experienced (but
not necessarily created) by human beings; the individual is an end in
himself and is of supreme value, society being only a means to individual
ends; and all individuals are in some sense morally equal, this equality
being best expressed by the proposition that no one should ever be treated
solely as a means to the well-being of another person.
The individualistic theory of human
nature holds that the interests of the normal adult are best served by
allowing him maximum freedom and responsibility for choosing his objectives
and the means for obtaining them, and acting accordingly. This belief
follows from the conviction that each person is the best judge of his own
interests and, granted educational opportunities, can discover how to
advance them. It is also based upon the assumption that the act of making
these choices contributes to the development of the individual and to the
welfare of society--the latter because individualism is thought to provide
the most effective incentive to productive endeavour. Society, from this
point of view, is seen as only a collection of individuals, each of which is
a self-contained and ideally almost self-sufficient entity.
As a general attitude, then,
individualism embraces a high valuation on self-reliance, on privacy, and on
respect for other individuals. Negatively, it embodies opposition to
authority and to all manner of controls over the individual, especially when
they are exercised by the state. It also anticipates and values
"progress" and, as a means to this end, subscribes to the right of
the individual to be different from, to compete with, and to get ahead of
(or fall behind) others.
The institutional embodiment of
individualism follows from these principles. Only the most extreme
individualists believe in anarchy, but all believe that government should
keep its interference with human lives at a minimum and that it should
confine itself largely to maintaining law and order, preventing individuals
from interfering with others, and enforcing agreements (contracts)
voluntarily arrived at. The state tends to be viewed as a necessary evil,
and the slogan "That government that governs least governs best"
is applauded. (see also political power)
Individualism also implies a
property system according to which each person (or family) enjoys the
maximum of opportunity to acquire property and to manage and dispose of it
as he sees fit. Freedom of association extends to the right to join (or to
refuse to join) any organization.
Although instances of individualism
have occurred throughout history in many cultures and times, full-fledged
individualism, as it is usually conceived to be, seems to have emerged first
in England, especially after the publication of the ideas of Adam
Smith and Jeremy Bentham and their
followers in economic and political theory. Smith's doctrine of
laissez-faire, based upon a profound belief in the natural harmony of
individual wills and Bentham's utilitarianism, with the basic rule of
"each to count for one and none for more than one," set the stage
for these developments. On the economic side, Smith's "obvious and
simple system of natural liberty" pictured exchange of goods and
services in free and competitive markets as the ideal system of cooperation
for mutual advantage. Such an organization should maximize efficiency as
well as freedom, secure for each participant the largest yield from his
resources to be had without injury to others, and achieve a just
distribution, meaning a sharing of the social product in proportion to
individual contributions.
Although economic individualism and
political individualism in the form of democracy advanced together for a
while, eventually they proved incompatible as newly enfranchised voters
increasingly came to demand, in the course of the 19th century, governmental
intervention in the economic process. In point of fact the reasons for the
growing demand for intervention were inherent in the attempt to adhere
rigorously to an economic theory based almost solely on individualistic
assumptions. In economics as in all other phases of life, these assumptions
are inadequate. Man is a social animal. His nature, his wants, and his
capacities are to a great extent the product of society and its
institutions. His most effective behaviour is often through groups and
organizations, running the gamut from the family through all manner of
voluntary social and economically motivated associations to the state and
international organizations. These units in varying ways interfere with the
individualistic ideals of perfectly free association and of atomistic
competition. Problems of monopoly and of technology, seasonal and cyclical
unemployment, frequently associated in the public mind with individualistic
economic theory, caused widespread dissatisfaction.
The prestige of individualistic
ideas declined during the latter part of the 19th century and the first part
of the 20th with the rise of large-scale social organization. One
consequence of this was the emergence of theories calling for the
organization of society on principles diametrically opposed to those of
individualism (see collectivism
). In liberal democracies, however, the notion of the importance of
the individual has survived, providing a check on the tendency toward
depersonalization that, some say, is a consequence of collectivist trends. |
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